GISdevelopment.net ---> AARS ---> ACRS 1980 ---> National Report

Remote Sensing Activities in Malaysia

Nik Nasruddin Mahmood
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute


Introduction
Despite wide application of remote sensing elsewhere, the only fully operational system in Malaysia in the black and white panchromatic aerial photography. Most of the government and private agencies are familier with the use of the conventional aerial photographs (Aps) for mapping and monitoring purposes. Lately, however, in the wake of development in the technology, there is a greater awareness of the application of other remote sensing systems, particularly for the purpose of natural resources inventory and monitoring. The little activities that are initiated by the different agencies in the country are mainly in the use of Landsat data by photographic and optical enhancement techniques. Digital processing of the data or the use of other remote sensing system, such as side Looking Radar (SLR) or Thermal Infrared Line Scanning (TIRLS) are non-existaint.

Malaysia was introduced to the Landsat technology about a yhear prior to the launching of the Landsat-I in july, 1972. It could be of interest to brief here the initial exposure Malaysia had to the programmes

Remote sensing by satellite technology was first brought to the notice of Malaysian scientists by Professor J. Lintz in June, 1971, who visited Malaysia on a lecture tour under the auspice of ECAFE. It was then formally introduced to the Malaysian government by the world Bank through the office of the Malaysian Treasure Department in early March, 1972. Within the same month Mr. Glen Schweizer, Director of the United States Science and Technology for International Development Financing, paid a short visit to Kuala Laumpur to brief various government departments on remote sensing in general and the LANDSAT and SKyLAB programmes of NASA in particular.

Subsequent to this visit the various departments comprising the Geological Sruvey, Forestry, Agriculture, Topo Survey and the Treasury held a meeting and decided to submit individual proposals for participation in the LANDSAT-I programme. This decision was taken because of a lack of scientists trained in remote sensing, to coordinate a national programme. Howev er, the dealine for the submission of the LANDSAT-I proposal left too short a period for the coordination and preparation fo a national multi-disciplinary proposal. Consequently, unable to meet the deadline, those individual proposals were not included in the selection process. Subsequent to this, a more comprehensive proposal for participation in the LANDSAT-II programme was submitted by the Geological Survey Department to the office of International Affairs at the NASA Headdquarters. The proposal was accepted and included in the NASA’s LANDSAT Follow-up Programmes in May, 1975.

A national multi-disciplinary proposal for participation in the LANDSAT-II Programme was not submitted to NASA. Under the LANDSAT-II follow-up Programme three batches of imagery were received by the Geological Survey Department within the period of April to June, 1976. In all 9 sets of imagery covering 8 scenes were provided. Each set consisting or 9 x 9 inches black and white positive print and 2.2 x 2.2 inches positive transparency of bands 4, 5, 6 and 7 of this 8 scenes, 2 cover only Southern Thailand, 1 covers the South China Sea and 2 cover small islands off the east and west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The remainder 3 scenes cover most of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia and have about 30% cloud cover.

Evaluation of the imagery suggests that, owing to its poor spatial resolution, the best working scale is associated with features of a regional mature.

Despite the early exposure Malaysia had to the LINDSAT programme, it did not develop into a big-scale formal involvement of the Malaysian government in the NASA Project. This is due principally to two related factors: namely the existence of technical gap between the two sides involved, and the lack of appreciation in the applied aspects on the part of the local professional due to inadequacies inherent in the system.

Until lately the activities of remote sensing in the country are conducted some what independently by various government agencies; the acquisition of LANDSAT materials is done directly through the EROS data contre. It was realized that for the maximum benefit out of the state-of-the are in remote sensing in general and the LANDSAT technology in particular the activities need to be centrally coordinated. Out of this realization, under the coordination of the Do nomic Planning Unit in the Prime Minister’s Department, the National Remote Sensing Committee of Malaysia was formed in the middle of the year 1978.

It is apparent that a big-scale involvement of Malaysia in the NASA project has a lower priprity than other government projects. At present, it is far-fetched to envisage that the government would cngage in a project like setting up LANDSAT ground receiving station. It is the government stand to study the trend of development in the technology before committing itself in a big vonture. Nevertheless, steps are taken to keep abreast with the program of the science. Personnels both policy-makers and professionals, are being sent abroad for remote sensing trainings and conference.

Formation of the national Remote Sensing Committee
The formation of the National Remote Sensing Committee (NRSC) of Malaysia was formally endorsed in August 1978, though the committee has already been functioning much earlier. The advances in remote sensing technology and the need for a coordinated programe for its application contributed to the formation of the NRSC. The objectives of the committee are to coordinate and promote development in the application of remote sensing. NRSC is under the chairmanship of the Coordination in the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) of the Prime Minister’s Department. The EPU is also the administrative center for the committee. The members comprise representatives from the following agencies:-
  1. Directorate of National Mapping
  2. Ministry of Defence
  3. Economic planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department
  4. Forestry Department
  5. Agriculture Department
  6. Geological Survey Department
  7. Division of Environment, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment
  8. Geography Department, University of Malaya
  9. Drainage and Irrigation Department
  10. Agriculture University of Malaysia
  11. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia
  12. Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI)
  13. Land and Survey Department, Sabah
  14. Land and Survey Department, Saravak
The terms of reference of the NRSC are:-
  1. To assist in the development of Remote Sensing programme for all user agencies.
  2. To review progress in implementation of projects and to define priorities.
  3. To review progress in the development of remote sensing applications.
  4. To coordinate requirements and recommend to the government the acquisition of the appropriate equipments and materials for user agencies.
  5. To coordinate utilization of common user equipment and facilities.
  6. To formulate and to recommend to the government remotes sensing training programmes and facilities.
  7. To promote exchange of remote sensing expertise both at national and international levels.
  8. To promote and coordinate multi-disciplinary approach to remote sensing.
  9. To act as a technical advisory body to the government on all aspects of remote sensing technology.
Remote Sensing Activities in Different sector in Malaysia

1. National Mapping
The Directorate of National Mapping is the agency responsible for topographical and geodetic survey, and the production and maintenance of topographical and town maps for civilian and military uses. Its director is in charge of the National Map Library which holds all original Aps, original plans, map reproduction materials , and official maps. He is also responsible for Government copy rights of all official maps, photographs, photo-mosaics and Aps. At the moment the Directorate is the sole agency in the country permitted to take Aps or any form of aerial imagery of any part of Malaysia. Any other agencies wishing to obtain or do aerial coverage for whatever purpose have to seek the Directorate for clearance.

Complete balck and white aerial-photo coverage (at photo scale 1: 25:000) of Penisular Malaysia for standard mapping, a swell as standard ravision for certain parts of the country was done during the year 1966-67 by the canadian Government under Colombo Plan aid. Subsequent coverage was carried out in 1974-75 for almost the whole of Peninsular Malaysia at the same scale of 1, 25, 000 as part of the Natural Resources Evaluation Project. Further coverage for specific areas were obtained from time to time with photo-scale rangin from 1: 2,500 to 1: 25,000 for the purpose of town mapping programme, large scale development plans and also for resource evaluation surveys.

The APS form the basis for topographical map productions. The basic map series for Peninsular Malaysia at the scale of 1: 1 mile (1:63,360) are primarily designed to meet the requirements of the Armed Foreces, Government Departments and the general public. The Shects in this series are fully coloured, gridded and contoured at 50 feet and 100 feet intervals. They are produced in R.S. O. projections with the sheet overall standard size of 18.7” x 25”.

With the implementation of the Weights and Measures Act, 1974, the Directorate has now initiated the programmes for the remapping of the whole Peninsular Malaysia in the Metric Series, at the scale of 1:50,000. This new series will replace the old 1 inch. 1 mile series when completed. The map will be produced in R.S.O. metres New AP coverage at scale of 1: 50,000 is planned for this map to produce photogrametric compilation at 1: 25,000. Production of this series will be based on priority ‘blocks’. The series is planned for completion in 10 years with revision once in every 5 years, for inactive areas and 2-3 years for areas under intensive development.

As can be seen, the Directorate of National Mapping/Survey Department has been using the remote sensing technique of the conventional aerial photography for photogrammetric mapping in the last 20 years. No attempt has yet been made by this Directorate to resort to other non-conventional remote sensing systems such as the LANDSAT, SLR, etc. For topographic mapping the scale and resolution of the photograph/imagery are the vital requirements in achieving the required map accuracy. In the light of this requirement, the following discussions are most relevant:-

i) For the imageries to be acceptable for large to medium scale mapping the spatioal resolution of the existilng remote sensing systems must be improved to meet the accuracy requirements.

ii) Standard stereo coverage for photogrametric restitution is required for topographic mapping. Very specialized equipment should then he readily and cheanly made available for the processing of this data.

2. Agriculture
Agriculture with the dominance of perennial crops (rubber, oil palm, cocoa and coconuts) and substantial acreages of annuals (rice, tobacco, field crops) is still the mainstay of the Malaysian economy. Investigations to improve the production technologies with respect ot verieties/clones, aggonomic practices, crop protection measures, etc of these cron commodities are undertaken utilizing various approaches in techniques and experimental designs. Remote sensing, though currently is of limited usage in Malaysia, with the exception of the use of Aps in soil survey and land use studies, offers potential as a technique in the detection and characterization of many agricultural phenomena.

The Department of agriculture in Kuala Lumpur is currently investigating the possibility of utilizing LANDSAT imageries for a more rapid land-use surveys and monitoring changes in its updating programmes. The method of approach is through visual interpretation. LANDSAT negatives at scale of 1: 1 million are enlarred to 1: 250,000 positive prints or duplicated into positives. The posistives are then duplicated on colour diazo for study using photographic and ptical enhancement techniques.

Problems encountered are related to the spatial resolution and the technique of luplication. Spatial resolution is, however, the most limiting fector as it determines the detail of the mapping categories. Another problem is the time lag between the capture and distribution of the data. On current performance it takes between 6 to 12 months for the latest imagery to be available. Ground checking therefore has a reduced reliability as changes which have taken place during the lag period could be significant.

The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) is entrusted with carving out research on the application of remote sensing in agricultural sciences. The scope of application is wide but this technique, to realize its full potential in Malaysia entails considerate investment in expertise and equipments. In the light of other priorities in agricultural research MARDI cannot accord its amphasis as yet. Nevertheless, in recognizing the potential as a tool to support investigations in several areas of agricultural science, a positive step is taken to set up a small remote sensing laboratory equipped with basic equipments mainly for visulal inter pratation approach. The laboratory is headed by an officer trained at the International Institute for Aerial Survey and Earch Sciences (ITC), The Eitherlands.

One of the major projects undertaken by MARDI is develop a comprehensive scheme of Agro-Climatic Zones for the country. Other than the climatic regimes, the data required for the execution of the project includes:

i) terrain clases
ii) sol types
iii) soil moisture regimes

The scope for utilizing remote sensing system, particularly the LANDSAT, as the data-source for this regional-scale endeavour is promising. Work on physiographic and terrain analysis using satellite imageries has been initiated. The working procedure is by visual interpretation of false-colour composite diazo prints and photographically enhanced imageries, Aps are used for the interpretation of sample areas, and further verified by ground checks.

Recently, MARDI has incorporated the “physiographic approach” in executing soil surveys using Aps. This method adopts the concept of “soil is a three-dimensional body-profile as well as landscape”. Work has also been initiated to incorporate similar concept in the visual interpretation of LANDSAT imageries for differentiating soil tyhpes at higher category of classification, the results of which later could be incorporated in the schemes of agro-climatic zones for the country.

Another major project MARDI is undertaking si related to old tinminin areas. Being a major tin-producing country, the problem crented by unscrupulous mining is unique to Malaysia. Currently, the affected area cover a total acreage of about half-a-million, scattered in certain parts of the country. MARDI is currently looking into the reclaimation and management aspects of this tintailing areas. To produce an inventory of these areas in terms of spatial distribution and tailing-types (slime, sand, mixed), attempts are being made to make use of LANDSAT imageries as a data source. Elements of land-use and vegetation cover are utilized to this end.

Mentioned above are some the activities currently undertaken by MARDI in which remote sensing is instrumental towards resolving some of the agricultural problems in the country. Based on encouraging results obtained elsewhere, the scope of remote sensing application in Malaysia within the domain of lagricultural sciences is wide.

They include:-

- estimating crop yields (such as rice)
- assessment of crop losses following natural calamities, fire, drought, etc.
- detection of the extent of pest infestation and disease attack of crops
- determination of soil characteristics, such as the moisture and drainage classes
- characterization of soils
- mapping of surface and subsurface waters

It is encouraging to note that there is a growing appreciation, aspecially among the policy-makers, of the great potential remote sensing offers in its application in agricultural sciences. The possibility of MARDI venturing into digital data processing is foreseeable, heightened by the intended purchase of a medium-size computer unit (with CPU of 2 megabytes, capable of upgrading to 4 megabytes)

The use of digitally processed LANDSAT data would be promising, particularly in crop studies. The effocts of dense surface cover and heavy atmosphere influences, cspecially clolud cover of the tropics on the final registration of data by the multi-spectral scanning system of the satellite render the existing technique unsuitable for soil and related studies.

3. Geology
The Department of Geological Survey of Malaysia (GSM) was the first agency in the country to gain access to LANDSAT imageries. The material were made available through the LAHDSAT Follow-up programme in which the GSM was a participant (accepted in May, 1975).

Initial evaluation of the imagery suggests that large-scale geomorphic and cultural features, cultivation, alluvium, igneous and sedimentary rocks, and structural features comprising of faults and folds can be identified and delineated. In general, the best working scale is associated with features fo a regional nature. To accommodate for the development in the applicational remote sensing in the department, the existing AP laboratory was further equipped to facilitate visual interpretation of the imageries. Additional equipment acquired for the purpose includes fairey Additive Colour Viewer, Zoom Transferscope, Lighted Magnifier, plus stheir accessories.

The scope of application of satellite remote sensing system in geology is restricted by its large spatial resolution. The wide synoptic view capability, however renders it suitable for regional scale investigations. With the limitations inherent is the system, the programmes outlined and undertaken by GSM are confined to those of regional in nature. They are in the fields of structural geology and the related hydrogeological and geophysical studies, and Quaternary geology.

The regional geological structures of Peninsular Malaysia have not be verified to a degree of accuracy acceptable to the profession at large. The features are related to the broadly folder Mesozoic rocks which have widespread distribution throughout Malaysia and Thailand. The synoptic view provided by LANDSAT imageries is of great help in the proper understanding of the regional structure. Such enhancement in the evalusation of the structural features of the Mesozoic rocks provide letter understanding of the region particularly to the oil companies active in this area. Comprehensive knowledge of regional structures also contributes to the success of hydrogeological and geophysical studies.

The Hydrology Division of the GSM is actively engaged in groundwater investigations throughout the country. The main objective is to alleviate water shortages experienced along the coastal belts during dry seasons and to establish alternative sources of water supply for industrial and agricultural uses. Application of remote sensing techniques through an understanding of structural features and the related geological phenomena has been proved useful elsewhere. GSM is currently undertaking similar studies using LANDSAT imageries.

Aeromagnetic surveys are being carried out over parts of Peninsular Malaysia. The Success of the surveys depends on full realization of the follow-up ground investigations, which in term depends to a great extend on compehensive understanding of regional structures.

In the field of Quaternary Geology, the GSM is currently looking into the possibilities of using satellite imageries in the studies on sea-level changes, coastal land forms and environmental geology. The former is indirectly related to the search for placer tin and the latter two are important to the socio-economic development of the country.

The Geology Department of the University of Malaya is another agency which is making use of LANDSAT imageries for geological investigations. Two of the staff members are trained in ITC. The Netherland , one of whom is presently involved in satellite imagery interpretation. The initial stage of interpretation of coastal sediment movement along the cast coast of Peninsular Malaysis using LANDSAT imageries has been completed. Further work is in progress.

4 Forestry
The practice of forestry is by nature extensive, both spatially and culturally. In the tropics where fosrest is very hecterogenous and accessibility is often inadeaquate remote sensing has been found to be invaluable and sometimes indispensable for effective forest management, utilization and development. Those practices could be soundly carried out on the basis of reliable and up-to-date quantitative information. Some of the information on the forest resource base required for the practice of sustained yield forest management includes:-
  1. the extend and location of the forest resource;
  2. the forest type and species composition;
  3. the structure and density of the stands;
  4. the size-class distribution and status of the trees;
  5. the rate of growth and yield and
  6. the rate of deforestation and reforestation.
Over the last couple of decades conventional remote sensing, has played an important role in Malaysia forestry. Black and white panchromatic Aps have been used extensively in forest stratification and location for the purpose of forest inventory and forest management. Remote sensing application in Malaysian forestry has not develop beyond the normal use of Aps because of lack of expertise equipments and materials.

Based on experience clsewhere and rapid rate of advancement in technology, it is believed that the scope for remote sensing application in Malaysian forestry can be expanded significantly to include other non-conventional systems. Colour, black and white infra-red, and false-colour photography, besides satellite imageries for small scale inventory, are some of the systems, to mentioned a few. The application of satellite remote sensing system is limited by its poor spatial resolution.

In addition to forest inventory and management, the prospects for remote sensing application in Malaysian forestry appear particularly promising in:-

i) environmental management
ii) forest protection, and
iii) forest ecology

The agencies that are involved in the application of remote sensing in Malaysian forestry are the Department of Forestry, Forestry Research Institute and the Forestry Faculty of the Agricultural University of Malaysia.

The Third Seminar on Remote Sensing-Decision making The interest Malaysian Government has in the development of remote sensing is shown by the approval of the Cabinet to host the Third Seminar-Decision Making in Kuala Lumpur on the 14th-25th January 1980 (plus a 5-day pre-seminar session). The seminar was the third of a series of four seminars organized by the International Institute for Aerial Survey and Earth Science (ITC), the Netherlands – in cooperation with the host organization, in the case of the one held in Kula Lumpur, The Directorate of National Mapping of Malaysia. The first seminar was held at ITC, Euschede (22nd May-2nd June, 1978), the second in Bogota, Colombia (15th-26th January, 1979), and the fourth seminar will be held in Kenya, scheduled for early 1991. Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the venue for the third seminar to catar for participants from countries in the ESCAP Region. The seminar was officially inaugurated by YB Tan Sri Haji Abdul Kadir Yusof the Honourable Minister of Land and Regional Development of Malaysia.

The third seminar aims at providing policy makers and their senior technical advisors with an insight into the impact remote sensing has on development policy formulation. The objectives of the seminar are as follows:-
  1. to identify the range of data requirements for decision making on which remote sensing may have an impact:
  2. to identify the potential of remote sensing data collection techniques and their possible impact on the decision-making process and
  3. to identify criteria for the selection of remote sensing systems for specific purpose.
The seminar was attended by 68 participants from countries in the ESCAP region and speciallyh selected experts as speakers and discussion leaders. The countries and number of participants are:-

Austria (1)
Bangladesh (1)
Canada (2)
Germany (1)
India (2)
Indonesia (7)
Kenya (3)
Netherlands (4)
Philippines (4)
Sri Lanka (1)
Thailand (10)
United Kingdom (1)
United Nations (1)
Malaysia (31)

The Seminar Board was under the directorship of Dr. J. J. Nossin (ITC, The Netherlands) with Mr. Yee shin cheong (DMM, Malaysia) as the Co-director and Prof. Ir. Sikke A. Hampenius (ITC, The Netherlands) the Advisor.

A total of 16 papers were presented at the seminar, and a further 14 papers were received from participants for distribution and discussion during the workshop sessions. Three keynote papers addressing the objectives fo the seminar were.
  1. Surveying planning Decision Making by Dr, J. J. Nossin, Netherlands.
  2. The Coming Paradigm of Decision making in Malaysia by Dr. Mohd. Iwaz Abdul Karim, Prime Minister’s Department, Malaysia.
  3. Projections to the Near and Far Future of Airborne and Orbital Remote Sensing Systems by Prof. Ir. Sikke A. Hempenius, Netherlands.
Conclusions and observations were drawn from the results of the working groups. They were –
  1. Remote Sensing is one of the techniques or tools nowadays available to decision makers. It is important that remote sensing should be incorporated in the existing range of data collection systems.
  2. The remote sensing techniques that are available even at present are not fully utilized for decision making. One reason would be that the application/acceptance of these new data collection techniques is lagging behing the advancement of technology.
  3. There is doubt among decision makers and planners as to the accuracy and applicability of remote sensing data collection and presentation aspecially those gathered from sensors on board of satellite. This is mainly due to the disparity between the character of the traditional and the new data gathered.
  4. From experiences in the South and South-East Asian region major constraints of remote sensing techniques are:-

    1. the excessive cloud cover over areas of interest,
    2. the actual satellite remote sensing systems do not fully satisfy the data needs of the region.
    3. The shortage of trained personnel and limited capabilities for data processing.

  5. Utilisation of data should be an interaction and collaboration between the decision maker, the data collection groups, and the implementing and monitoring organizations/agencies.
    The seminar also unanimously recommends the followings:-
    1. Decision makers and planners should be made fully aware of the potentials and limitations of remote sensing through seminars, conferences and other training programmes by national, regional and international bodies.
    2. The seminar recommends that future ground receiving stations in the South-East Asian region are so sited as to obtain a maximum coverage of the region from existing and future satellites.
    3. A particular interest should be paid to the development of integrated information systems which should be set up in a manner as to be able to include remote sensing date.
    4. Techniques to overcome the cloud problem should be systematically and effectively developed.
    5. International Cooperation within the South-East Asian region should be established for the region to cover:-
    1. Sharing of training facilities
    2. Sharing of data processing facilities
    3. In this context exchange of experience and research results through the region should be encourage. For this purpose, the cooperation and sponsorship of international bodies, such as ESCAP is solicited.
    Finally, in ovaluating (benefits and justifications) of the seminar the followings are pertinent:-
    1. The seminar was a valuable and worthwhile endeavour. It provided a vehicle for considerable transfer of knowledge, expertise and active exchange of experience amongst participants.
    2. The resultant benefits derived from the seminar may not be an immediate realization but it had certainly created awareness to the participants as to the potentials and capabilities of this technology as tools for development planning. Remote sensing have proven to be invaluable tools as an aid to solve problems concerning:

      • employment, population growth
      • environment, diminishing land, urbanization
      • pollution, energy crisis, mineral resources
      • water resources, agricultural/forestry resources
      • marine resources,……….etc.
        Justifiable the seminar provides greater impetus and generate wider interests in the application of this technology to the participants.

    3. It becomes evident, from the final observations and recommendations of the seminar that the objectives laid out have been met with

      1. For the newcomer to this technology the introductory preseminar programme was acclaimed to be most valuable. The lectures on the basis of remote sensing technology were designed to cater especially updating and building up the technical knowledge of the participants.
      2. The participants have been alerted on the rapid technological development, especially of data acquisition, data handling and management techniques. This technological development/advances is foreseen to have far reaching consequences on the formulation of national devleopmnet strategies through remote sensing applications.

    4. It is evident that Malaysia still lacks the expertise, technical know-how and experience in the applicational aspects of non conventional remote sensing technology. In this respects Malaysian National Remote Sensing Committee should look into all possibilities to increase its effort and play a bigger role in promoting and developing programmes for a more active adoption of remote sensing applications in various aspects of government development programme.
    Summary and General Discussions
    1. The only fully operational remote sensing system in Malaysia is the balck and white panchromatic aerial photography. This conventional system is widely used both in the governments and private agencies.
    2. Other remote sensing systems are virtually non-existent. The little existing activities are limited to the visual interpretation of LANDSAT data through photographic and optical enhancement techniques.
    3. However, there is a great tendency Malaysia to move towards a bigger involvement in the application of the non-conventional remote sensing systems. The scope of application is wide and the potential for the use of the existing/available data is great. This includes the use of the digitally processed Landsat data.
    4. Major limiting factors in the application of the present remote sensing particularly the satellite systems are:-
    1. Excessive cloud cover ever the country. At present the satellite coverage is intermittent, thus reducing the changes of hav ing cloud free’ data. The possibility of having imageries of acceptable cloud cover quality (30% in the normally acceptable/workable limit) could however be incrcased if Malaysia is included in the future LANDSAT programmes. Techniques to overcome the effect of cloud cover shuld be effectively developed by satellite technologiets.

    2. The spatial resolution (90 m) of the existing LANDSAT multispectral scanning system is inadequate for detailed investigations. Its wide synoptic view (185 km per frame) however makes it an excellent form of base map for a regional-scale studies.

      It is enlightening to know that the U.S.A. and France are planning to launch their satellites capable of gathering data with a much improved spatial resolution. They are LANDSAN (Planned for 1961) and spot (for 1984) respectively. The former has a resolution of 30 m and the latter 10-20 m.

    3. Data capture distribution time lag. With the precent set up it takes 6-12 months for the accuisition of LANDSAT material from the time of requesting Geographic Computer search and Computer Printout, placing the order, till the receiving of the materials from the EROS data center. This lag period obscures the advantageous 18 day temporal resolution the system has.

      It is the hope of Malaysia that the time taken for the acquisition of LANDSAT materials would be considerably reduced with the setting up of ground receiving stations and data processing and dessiminating centers by its ASMAN neighbours.

    4. The shortage of trained personnel and limited capabilities for utilization and processing of the satellite data.